Business process reengineering Essay Example for Free

Business process reengineering Essay This article is about business process reengineering. business processes we can say is the core tasks that are carried out in departments in an organization for the ultimate goal of delivering a product and a high quality one at that and services to the satisfaction of the customer. Business process reengineering is the modeling of the existing processed to steer the organization towards better performance. This is not considered to be done over a long period of time but rather it is something which is done at once so in a way there is a change of the way things are done but the aim is to come up with a better way for a better benefit. Examples of business processes is the manner in which information flows in an organization,management, departmental tasks,, that is the sales and marketing, production, as well as operational and technical support. Business process reengineering strategy is to improve the business competitive advantage. In discussion is its scope and strength. In consideration is the size of the business alongside the composition of the market. Its main aim is improving the existing business processes and sees how they make a business much better than it was before. We can also call it business transformation whereby the existing organization transforms the way work is done with a way of improving the services as well reducing the costs. It is also aimed at adding value to the existing business; processes and maintain the ones which are relevant as they are while at the same time minimizing or getting rid of those that do not add value to the organization. The article also speaks about organizational culture. An organization is a work setting which comprises of employees. These may be in different departments e. g. sales and marketing, production, and transport department. These departments are interdependent and they support one another in their functions. Their main aim is for the organization to achieve its goals and objectives. It comprises of employees who are the human resources. Culture in itself is beliefs, norms, attitudes, values and experiences of an organization and the people who work there. Organizational culture is the way things are done there. There is a trend of the way the management operates and the way people behave and the manner in which they work. An example of an organization culture is the role culture where emphasis is laid on the concentration on the task carried out. Teamwork is also is a type of culture where tasks are accomplished by a group of people working together with a common goal. They however work as a tea m but this they do in order to achieve the organization goals and objectives as a whole. This is the analysis of the existing business processes in which case is the way tasks are carried out in an organization and working towards transforming them and implementing the new process with the aim improving products and services that the organization offers. A group of processes are observed whereby individual tasks are allocated to a team with a wide range of expertise to accomplish with the main aim of achieving the organization goals and objectives. It is also aimed at improving the organization efficiency and effectiveness. The main aim of BPR is to increase an organization competitive advantage and a new competitive edge. An organization can achieve its goals a fresh through business process reengineering since it is as good as new. Cost is the price at which the end product is sold for. In cost strategy the consideration is to penetrate the market with a low price while at the same time offering the standard quality product and even better than that of the competitor but a lower cost. This will be seen to give an organization the competitive edge. The key issue is to maintain the quality of the product while liasing with all the department s in order to ensure that at all costs the cost is reduced from the marketing department to the production department. Cost reduction should be considered in all aspects of the organization and in the whole business process as a whole . this will enable the organisation to reach the consumer with a high quality product and a t a favourable price. Another organization process is production. This is the conversion of the raw materials into a product. The organization has a plant in which there is manual machinery which is used in the production process. Human effort is considered in loading the materials some of them onto the machinery for production. Efficiency is required in order to ensure that the product at the end of the day is prepared on time and also should be of the standard quality. At all times the organization should seek ways to ensure that the costs of production are kept at the minimum in order to ensure that the product reaches the market at a low price, in order to enjoy a competitive advantage. This is the computerized use of machinery. The machinery in the organization is controlled using computers and all the production processes are computer controlled. This will ensure that the product is of high quality, speed will be increased since the machines work much faster than human beings. Efficiency is enhanced where there is continuity of the work being done as well as the uniformity since the machines do not take days off. This will ensure that the supply of products in the market is constant and availability is enhanced. Supplies also can be made even on orders which have been made over a short period of time since the machinery can be able to meet the production to be done with the minimum time possible. This can also ensure that there is a reduction in the cost of production where there are no many human resources required together with the expenses that go with them like medical cover, housing allowances, as well as pension funds. Cost reduction is effective, and it ensures that the product at the end of the day penetrates the market at a very low cost which will enable the organization to build a large customer base, and also expand its market share. This is a combination of beliefs, attitudes, norms adopted by people in an organization and the manner in which they work. It is best described as a collection of norms and values by people and groups working in an organization. This is a type of culture where efforts are directed towards a product or a service being delivered. it brings human resources together and also pulling resources together for the benefit of coming up with the best possible product or service. It is a team culture whereby a team is built and it is assigned a certain project with an aim of achieving a certain goal and objective. In this culture the team is composed of people qualified in different fields of expertise and is marked by sessions of brainstorming where ideas are formed on how to accomplish the set task. There is also an element of friendliness, as the members all the employees working in a team have to combine efforts and hence each one of them is as important and hence they have got to form alliances. It is from expertise that power is derived. Team members have a scope of ideas which they bring on board and contribute towards accomplishment of the set tasks. The main aim is to reduce costs in all aspects of the organization from sales and marketing and other departments to production. This will ensure that the end consumer will enjoy a lower price of the product than that of the competitor. Cutting costs should be considered in all the organization processes. When the cost is reduced the product is able to penetrate the market at a relatively lower price than that of the competitor products. This will increase the market share as well as the profits. When there is an increase in the profits the organization will also be able to run efficiently and be able to meet its consumer needs as well as enjoy growth in terms of better service and product delivery. This can be achieved through mass s production and distribution, reduction of waste and also a reduction of the market force while also maintaining a goal oriented team. This is the time for business process reengineering. It should be considered since it is for the better of the organization where it gets rid of obsolete business processes and introducing and bringing fresh ideas and ways of working in an organization in order to come up with fresh ideas as well as improve the organization efficiency in delivery of products and services. Organization culture plays an important role in the way an organization operates. It is very important that an organization adopts a culture that favours its goals and objectives and enhances the growth of the organization as well as ensure that it encourages the employees to work towards achieving the organization goals.

Relationship Between Tectonic Architecture And Materials Cultural Studies Essay

Relationship Between Tectonic Architecture And Materials Cultural Studies Essay The following thesis seeks to identify and examine the relationship between tectonic architecture and materials. Although materials are all around us; we often do not take the time to examine them; to truly reflect on their inclusion, and so there very presence is often taken for granted. In order to emphasise the importance of materials in architecture; this research question focused on discussing How do materials play a key design role in tectonic architecture? The thesis used two main methodologies. The first was a literature review, which includes a comprehensive review of the literature that was instrumental in addressing the main topics, materials and tectonic architecture. The second was a model based study which focused on a particular building. It examines how a change in materials could affect the design of a building; and thus emphasises the key role materials play in tectonic architecture. The findings of the research highlighted the fact that materials do indeed play a key role in the design of tectonic buildings; and in some cases they can be the main driver for the initial design. However it was also established that there are many other contributory factors which also affect the overall design. Factors such as the structure, the crafting of construction, innovation, the use of cutting edge technology, the collaboration of the design team as they work in synergy with the architect, and finally the methodologies of learning by doing or facilitating education through the teaching of others. Definitions / Glossary Tectonic Architecture A non-monolithic structure, assembled using different materials, techniques and resources in the act of construction making and revealing  [1]  . Stereotomic Architecture A self-supporting monolithic structure composed from articulated solid elements. Atectonic A combination of tectonic and sterotomic building techniques. The crafting of construction This is not just a joint or a construction detail; it is the crafting together of materials and surface through bespoke means. Green design Philosophy that treats environmental attributes as design objectives and not as constraints. High-tech Refers to technology that is at the cutting edge or the most advanced technology currently available. Honesty The notion that a structure shall display its true purpose and not be decorative Materials The matter from which a thing is or can be made  [2]   Constructivist teaching methodologies Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning and knowledge construction rather than passively receiving information  [3]  . All works of architecture involve a creative interplay between ideas and materials to which both makers and critics have repeatedly been willing to assign ethical value  [4]   Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction Materials are not trendy; they are a necessity for the realization of creativity  [5]   Looking around the built environment, one can see materials are everywhere; yet they are not often questioned; when were they invented? How are they picked? How are they used? Why were they put together in a particular way? Were the correct materials selected? In addition to these questions architects must also address issues around purpose and design; can materials be the driving force behind their designs or are they insignificant, merely an aesthetical feature of the building. Attempting to delve into and address some of these questions has led to the research of this thesis; namely How do materials play a key design role in tectonic architecture? This thesis aims to understand tectonic architecture and the role of materials in the design of a building. One has a basic understanding of what these words mean from the glossary however there is a need to explore where they have come from and how they have and will affect architecture. In exploring this idea there is a need to acknowledge, where tectonic architecture and materials began, how they have evolved over time, and going forward what direction are they headed in? The thesis shall discuss a number of these issues in order to address the research question. The paper shall examine the following main chapters; Joint / The crafting of construction, the tectonic innovation of large span, 20th century modern tectonic architects, 21st century tectonic environmental architecture and a model based study. Research methods This thesis is jointly done through two research methods. The first consists of the literature review, and was under taken to gain an in depth understanding of tectonic architecture and the complexity of materials. The second involves a model based research which was conducted through the analysis of drawings in order to understand the effect of a material change on a tectonic building. The first five chapters will analyse the key role materials play on tectonic architecture. It will look at both the theory and the practical side of this subject; with analytical drawings to further develop this principle. This study will be carried out via secondary research, comprising of books, journals, newspaper articles, electrical journals, published conferences and websites. Research will be carried out on both subjects, starting with the design and building of the mere hut to the development of the contemporary tectonic architecture. Chapters six will be an in-depth study in to a model based research, where the question will be asked if materials do play a key role in tectonic architecture and if there was variations in materials would the building design and space changed. The analysis will aim to show how important materials are to the building design with 3 dimensional drawings. 2.0 Joint / The crafting of construction Often it is the expressiveness of the jointing which humanizes structures and gives them their friendly feel.  [6]   In Greek, the term tectonic comes from the work tekton, which suggests carpenter or builder. In the fifth century, the meaning evolved into the role of the tekton. This led to the emergence of the master builder or architekton. Kenneth Frampton observed that Adolf Heinrich Borbein claimed this meaning would eventually change to an aesthetic rather than a technological category. Frampton noted in his book Studies in Tectonic Culture that Karl Otfied Muller, in his third edition of Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst, that tektones was specialized, in reference to people in construction or cabinet makers which used a specifically functional or dry joint, though this did not include clay and metal working in the meaning. This gave the definition of tectonic as the joint or the joining through the construction process. In 1851 Gottfried Semper, published his book, The Four Elements of Architecture (Die vier Elemente der Baukunst). He based some of his elements on a Caribbean hut (see figure 1) that he saw at the great exhibition of 1851 and he divided the dwelling into four elements, 1 the earthwork, 2 the hearth, 3 the framework (including the roof) and 4 the lightweight skin or membrane  [7]  . On the base of these four elements, Semper classed the building crafts into two fundamental different procedures: the tectonics of the lightweight frame work and the stereotomic of the base. Semper illustrated the use of the stereotomic base where mud-brick and stone were placed on the ground, on to which the lightweight framed structure sat. Frampton considered the stereotomic base to be load bearing masonry, weather stone and mud brick. He noted the importance of the lightweight framed structure, where he saw the creation of the knot as a fundamental element in enabling the tying together of the lightweight components. The knot led to the securing of the frame and was perceived by Semper as a complex jointing of construction. Around the world, this technique can be visibly seen, where rope is used to knot lightweight structures together; highlighting how locally available materials were utilized to build huts. African tribal cultures used a wide range of vertical screen walls where the rope knot was the key construction element. The Gogo house in Tanzania was built from tree branches where a rope knot was employed to hold the structure together while mud was built arou nd the structure. In comparison to this, the Kuba hut found in the southeast of the Congo was erected using woven mats, again with all joints being knotted together with rope. Semper highlighted the development of knots into a weaving process, which subsequently led to the creation of buildings fabric. Buildings such as the Bedouin tribal huts were assembled using locally sourced materials in a weaving manner in order to build strong huts; as oppose to those which were built with knots. Woven walls were a form of wattle construction  [8]  , which was described by Allen Noble as vertical stakes, each fitted into a hole or slot in one horizontal and sponge into a groove or another hole in the other member of the framework. Materials such as osiers, reeds or thin strips of oak were most common  [9]  . This style of wattle construction is still in use today in the building of fences; however it did lead to the advancement in wattle and daub construction, which can be seen in many vernacular buildings around the world today. Cherie Wendelken in his article on The Tectonics of Japanese Style: Architect and Carpenter in the Late Meiji Period noted that Japanese architecture had great symbolical structures which were primarily tectonic, whereby locally sourced material such as grasses and bamboo pillars were being knotted together. The 15th century Japanese house was constructed with a woven faà §ade. These houses were built in a post and beam framed manner with woven infilling walls which allowed for flexible sliding screens. Sempers, The Four Elements of Architecture, can be seen clearly in these houses as the stereotomic base which was built of boulder footings, a lightweight timber structure sat on these foundations and finally a lightweight skin was applied. Some of these structures would be built every 20 years as there time cycle only lasted this length. The most celebrated of these structures being the monumental Naiku and Geku. Pre 1800 tectonic architecture illustrates that the joint or the crafting of construction was the most important and innovative aspect of tectonic architecture with materials playing a key role in the design of the building. This can be seen from the reed-built houses of the Marsh Arabs in Iraq (Materials, Form and Architecture for images p13). These materials were normally locally sourced and the construction methods were tried and tested over long periods of time, as was the case with most vernacular architecture of that era. 3.0 The tectonic innovation of large spans Gothic churches and cathedrals were noted by Frampton as having the idea that with the combining vaulted and trabeated structural forms in a new spatial unity; on the other, it stretched the art of reinforced masonry construction to its technological limits  [10]  . This led to the innovation of large non-load bearing faà §ades in gothic architecture. This innovation in structure went on to influence many architects of the 19th century, including Augustus, Welby, Northmore, Pugin and Viollet Le Duc. Voorthuis highlights how Pugin claimed You can decorate constructionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦but you cannot construct decoration  [11]  and thereby hides the true construction of a building. Pugin had a great understanding of materials and craftsmanship. He himself used innovative and experimental techniques when it came to craftsmanship and designing building such as the Church of St. Augustine, Ramsgate or St. Aidans Cathedral in Enniscorthy. However Voorthuis emphasised how Pugin would insist that if mouldings were to appear on a building, they need to do so for a reason, such as to stop weathering of an area rather than for aesthetic reasons; and this was his use of tectonic architecture. Frampton pointed this out in the fabric build-up of St. Pauls in London (167-1710). Where he commented on Pugins proposed drawings of the church a section through a pointed church compared to the hidden buttresses built into the fabric  [12]  (fig ) or ornamented mediaeval truss roof compared to t hat of the concealed truss hidden by a suspended ceiling (fig ). While Pugin worked on the innovation in craft and his idea, that mouldings were to appear for reasoning, Eugene Emmanuel Viollet le Duc worked on the advancement in materials. Viollet Le Duc was a French architect and theorist famous for his interpretive restorations of medieval buildings and also for his writing advocating that materials should be used honestly. He began his career with twelve commissions for the restoration of medieval monuments. He encouraged the use of different materials with new techniques and resources, in contrast to the work of William Morris and his art and crafts movement, which promoted traditional crafts. Henry Van Brunt in his book Discourse on architecture noted that Viollet Le Duc was more concerned with the economy of structure than the theorists of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Viollet-le-Duc pursues lightweight hollow or reticulated metal construction as an agent for transforming every conceivable tectonic element, from window shutters to metal roofs  [13]  . This interest in metal construction led to Viollet le Duc using wrought and cast iron which promoted lightweight tectonic framed structures and was a unique resourc e from which 19th century architecture would developed from. His experimentation with metal led to the development of an iron network of vaulting and can be seen in his octagonal hall design. Frampton stated that the octagonal hall is organized with its polygonal roof structure and statically determinate iron members displayed the principles of structural rationalism for the first time in construction  [14]  . The octagonal hall was to be a 3000 seat hall spanning 140 feet, illustrating iron works and innovative techniques, which tended to pushed the boundaries of architecture and materials to their limits. His idea of cast iron framed structures was to be firstly realized by the English landscape architect Joseph Paxton and Anatole de Baudot. Paxton won the design competition for the Great Exhibition of 1851 (fig ) designing a building measuring over 92,000m2 . He was assisted in his work by two engineers, Fox and Herderson, who came up with a system of structural elements. The building was completed in nine months due to its innovative modular design and construction techniques which used the largest glass panels available and the most up to date technology in order to forge and connect elements. Another major factor that contributed to the fast building time was the collaboration of each person involved, from the architect down to the craftsman. De Baudot was seen as Viollet Le Ducs predecessor. Frampton noted that he worked in a similar style to that of Viollet le Duc, using cast iron columns to equally express his tectonic architecture in the world exhibitions held in Paris in 1878 and 1889. These two significant projects, one circular, the other rectangular, were attempts to realize Viollet-le-Ducs iron network vaulting on a grand scale  [15]  . However they never lived up to the grand scale of Galerie des Machines 1889 designed by Ferdinand Dute which had a 180 foot span. The building was a controversial design for steel construction however iron was used as Robert Thorne notes that John W. Stamper emphasised The principal material of the buildings structure was to have been steel, but the decision was made at the last minute to use iron instead. Steel was abandoned on the two-fold ground of expense and the necessity of hastening the execution of work  [16]  . Georg Heuser, and Otto Wagner were both great writers in the promotion of architectural realism as a matter of principle in the late 1800s. Heuser saw the development of architecture innovation rather than decorative style. Frampton indicated that Heuser seems to have been among the first to acclaim the riveted steel frame as the new industrial vernacular of the machine age  [17]  . To the contrary Richard Weston wrights For Ruskin, industrial production was the work of the Devil, and cast or machine work that imitated craft (hand) production what he called operative deceit  [18]  . 4.0 Tectonic reinforced concrete Bring out the nature of the materials; let their nature intimately into your scheme  [19]   The latter half of the 19th century, also saw the development in structural framing concrete. In 1890, engineer Paul Cottancin came up with his reinforced masonry system known as ciment arme. This system was noted to be labour intensive and became obsolete 17 years later due to Francois Hennebiques patent and his reinforced concrete design known as beton arme. This outcome reversed tectonic principles allowing the transgression of a stereotomic material to a tectonic frame. Frampton stated that after Louis Vicats perfection of hydraulic cement around 1800, concrete began to be used in a new way  [20]  . However he mentions how Joseph Moniers began building prefabricated flower pots and sewer pipes from reinforced wire and cement. It was not until Francois Hennebique, a French engineer and self-educated builder, began using perfected reinforced concrete in his construction that it became popular. Douglas McBeth, in his book Francois Hennebique-Reinforced concrete pioneer, emphasised that Hennebiques system started out as fireproofing to protect iron beams. However he soon realised that the floor system would be more economical if the iron was used only where the slab was in tension, while it could rely on the concrete in compression. The Hennebique system was a simple erection of timber formwork around steel, after which concrete could be poured. While Hennebique was perfecting his methods, De Baudot whom was Viollet Le Ducs predecessor was working on St. Jean de Montmartre. Frampton observed that De Baudot wanted to exploit a method that could combine light construction with bonded brickwork, as he pointed out, the result was a somewhat oriental, diagonally ordered system of vaults rising from thin brick walls and piers enclosing narrow channels of interior spaces  [21]  . This would bring Viollet Le Ducs idea of cast iron vaulting to a new innovative method of brick vaulting. However Hennebique system began to be widely used and was further developed by architects such as Auguste Perret. Auguste Perrets architectural career was bound around the principle of reinforced concrete and Karla Britton, in her book Auguste Perret noted that Perret claimed reinforced concrete frame construction is the ultimate structural material  [22]  . Perrets went to the Ecole des Beaux arts school where he argued between practical and theory in architectural education. However as Frampton highlighted, he chose the practical as he left abruptly before submitting a final project. He started to design and build one of the first apartment blocks from reinforced concrete construction. Nonetheless, Perret was concerned for a building to be structurally honest and with this, used a visible framework as can be seen in his Garage Marboeuf. His work was noted for establishing concrete as an acceptable architectural material in the 20th century. It was noted by Britton that Perret and Frank Lloyd Wright attempted fair faced reinforced concrete at virtually the same time and both had similar res ults. 5.0 20th Century Modern Tectonic Architects Construction is the means; architecture is the result  [23]   Frank Lloyd Wright left school in 1887 without finishing his degree, and moved soon afterwards to Chicago where he found work with Adler and Sullivan. Wright was impressed with Sullivans ornamental design. Louis Sullivan was influenced by the idea from and function. However his statement was form ever follows function  [24]  . Sullivan took Wright under his wing and acted as a mentor to him in his early career. Frampton stated; Wrights early domestic architecture, executed in wood, is invariably conceived and machined according to a repetitive modular order and framed  [25]  . Sullivan also introduced Wright to Celtic iconography and Celtic textiles. Following on from this induction, Wright became heavily influenced by textiles. He visited the Columbian exhibition of 1893, the Ho-o-den, and began turning his attentions to Japanese architecture. He visited Japan in 1917 and worked there until 1922. While working in Japan, Frampton noted that Wright studied tea houses, religiou s Japanese architecture, and the Horyu-ji shrine. Upon his return in 1922, Wright brought back many ideas, such as heated floors and modular part construction. However it was woven faà §ade and concrete that mostly inspired him as he stated Aesthetically, concrete has neither song nor any story  [26]  . In 1921 Wright finally looked at the idea of wire-reinforced concrete blocks that were pre-cast with a pattern on the outer face. He would later call this the textile block. He first used this system in the Aliace Millard house in Passadena California. Terry Patterson in his book Frank Lloyd Wright noted that he would make a double coursed wall, one internally and one externally for the cooling and heating of the house. After the accomplishment of both system and house, Wright refers to himself as a weaver  [27]  stating his textile blocks were a woven skin/faà §ade. Wright follows this up with a statement in his book Frank Lloyd Wright Writings and Buildings I finally had found simple mechanical means to produce a complete building that looks the way the machine made it, as much at least as any fabric need lookà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Standardisation as the soul of the machine, here for the first time may be seen in the hand of the architecture  [28]  . Semper, in The Four Elements of Architecture, spoke about the textile and its comparison to the art of enclosures or the woven faà §ade. This can be seen from the wattle construction, or Japanese vernacular houses, but now can also be seen in the development and the influence in Frank Lloyd Wrights architecture. There was also the development in the joint or crafting of construction. This came from the pre 1800s work and the great iron works of the 19th century which was advanced by architects such as Mies van der Rohe and Carlo Scarpa. Mies van der Rohe saw details and joints as one of the foremost important elements in his architecture, as his famously states, God is in the details. Mies started his career by using brick on such projects as his Brick Country house Project going to great lengths in this endeavor. Philip Johnson in his book Mies van der Rohe noted this as he states; he calculated all dimensions in brick lengths and occasionally went so far as to separate the under-fired long bricks from the over-fired short ones, using the long in one direction and the short in the other  [29]  . Mies gradually started to use other materials, such as steel, marble and large sheets of glass. The qualities of different materials became a leading idea in how Mies designed his buildings, from a stereotomic mass to a skeleton tectonic frame. When one looks carefully at the detail in Miess buildings, he had a great understanding and respect for the qualities of materials. As while he was looking for stone for the Barc elona Pavilion, he knew that one could not move marble from a quarry in winter because it is wet inside and freezing conditions could cause it to break. With this in mind, he had to find a dry material and eventually found onyx blocks of a certain size and proportion, and from this he designed the pavilion to be twice the height as it was originally considered and developed the plan from there. Frampton acknowledged that from 1926 to 1933, Mies had three main considerations; firstly, in the underlying aesthetic intention, secondly, in the essence of materials to hand, and thirdly, in the institutional status of the work  [30]  . A change in Mies work can be seen when he shifted the column from circular to I or H. He began to express the joint in the column and beams more often. This transformation brought him back to a shift to more traditional tectonics. This expression can be clearly seen in the Farnsworth House and the Neue Nationalgalerie Berlin. Frampton states, Within thes e parameters, the art of building for Mies meant the embodiment of the spirit in the banality of the real; the spiritualization of technique through tectonic form  [31]  . 6.0 21st century Tectonic Environmental Architecture Materials are not trendy; they are a necessity for the realization of creativity  [32]   Materials loom largely as one of the most discussed ideas of contemporary architecture. Victoria Ballard Bell, in her book Materials for Design explains that Materials should inspire designers to think of materials as a palette from which to imagine an idea or concept that can be realised with the use of materials  [33]  . This idea can be seen in such building as the Laminata Glass house in Leerdam, The Netherlands, the horse stable (Ghost 9) in Nova Scotia Canada or Frank Gehry Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. However how are these materials chosen? Bell outlines that material selection is one of the utmost important decisions an architect must undertake. She notes more often than not, materials are not addressed till the end of the design process or even during the creation of a construction document for a building design as if there are sometimes mere afterthoughts in various projects. Lisa Wastiels has the view that every material selection should aim to fulfil a simple need, to identify the best material for a particular application. However in order to identify the best materials, it is important to first understand the criteria used to select those materials in the first instance. Wastiels research broke material selection consideration into four identified categories, context, manufacturing process, material aspect and experience (see figure). However from interviews in Wastiels research, some interesting information appeared. It was highlighted that building codes, regulations and standards are major factors in the choos ing of materials today. Further to this Richard Weston in his book Materials, Form, and Architecture states, in addition to their traditional interest in the structural/constructional and aesthetic qualities of materials, designers must now also consider their embodied energy (in production, transportation, and on site), potential for recycling, and renewability as a resource  [34]  . Bell remarks that materials are now being chosen for their green credentials to be sustainable and sensitive to our environment. This idea has been used by many tectonic architects such as Glenn Murcutt and Renzo Piano. Australian architect Murcutt is world renowned for his energy efficient architecture; although he does not work outside the country, using his motto touch the earth lightly  [35]  . Murcutt is an advocate of using locally sourced manufactured materials such as glass, timber and steel where he developed an appreciation for simple vernacular architecture which pays attention to the environment. Murcutt takes into account the origins of the material, the energy consumed to process them and reusing them to avoid the loss of energy. The Marika-Alderton House in Yirrkala Community is a prime example of Murcutts energy efficient ideas where he adapts his materials to the hot tropical climate where a skeleton skin like building emphasises ventilation. Nevertheless he also uses agricultural tin sheets to cover the building in an innovative way. Murcutt uses Simpers principle id

Impact of New Media on Teenagers | Research

Impact of New Media on Teenagers | Research THE IMPACT OF NEW MEDIA ON TEENAGERS CONDUCT Emily Shaba The data was obtained through interviews at two high schools and through the below interview questions. Interview questions The majority of teenagers in schools access new media through their phones and laptops. The main sites that are used or the most used form of new media is Facebook and Whatsapp as well as the internet in general through Google to find out things they are curious about. Most of the youth as well admitted to having used new media frequently some even admit to being addicted to it. According to the research however new media has positively impacted teenagers in a lot of positive ways the first being it helps them with research in school work and finding out about other things that they may be curious about. Social sites help to build a closer relationship between teenagers and their friends plus relatives that may be far away. It provides quick and cheap communication as compared to phone calls and text messages or travelling to meet their friends and relatives. It also helps with making new friends for teenagers that are naturally shy and cannot or find it had to make friends or interact with others physically. They get a chance to find someone to interact with and talk to when need be. Makes them understand new technology that is coming in and how to use it effectively. They are however also some negative ways in which new media impacts teenagers firstly being that despite the ability to make new friends they are not trustworthy. This may be imposter’s people with bad manners that may end up sharing them with the teenagers or worse criminals who end up harming innocent teens or stealing from them. Most teenagers also admitted to the fact that it is too tempting, it gives them the chance to see things that may be inappropriate to them on a silver platter it is like leaving chocolate on the table for a kid and telling them not to eat when its alone with them in the room for days and nobody has the ability to know if they eat it. This also results in teens being exposed to porn and other inappropriate pictures which later trigger things like premarital sex and early pregnancies. Teens are also exposed to a western way of life and tend to think drugs and alcohols are part of life and if you do not drink go clubbing or use media then you feel left out and backwards in time. It is so addictive that teens can not focus on anything else other than it. It also gives wrong information about various things and teens get wrong advice from their new internet found friends about different things which ends up corrupting their character. Most teenagers agreed to there being a change in the way they act or view things since they started using new media. They know more things than they did in the past and they are pickier about things more especially the way they dress or act around friends. New media from an academic point of view has also impacted them positively in that it helps them with homework and research when their given something to work on at school. It also helps them to find notes, books and past papers that their school may not be able to provide which also helps with their performance in class. They also learn a lot of new things online that they may not be able to learn in school. They are able to get inspiration from other people that they are able to look up and find out about their lives online. It helps with their spellings and grammar. New media however also has academic disadvantages which according to the research included: It reduces concentration on school as the time that would be used for studying is rather used on new media or social sites. Instead of concentrating in class teens are busy on their phones using social media or thinking about what to say to who, their next Facebook or WhatsApp profile picture and status. It makes them lazy and increases chances of plagiarism as they might as well take an already written paper and just change it than spend time on writing a paper rather than on the internet. Due to the many abbreviations used on social sites the teens spellings are sometimes affected and their language too. It provides them sometimes with the wrong information on their school work too. It has also impacted the way they relate to their friends in that they have more time to chat and hence it brings them closer. However other friends that do not use new media are isolated. It reduces interaction between teens instead of them meeting up to chat or do another thing they only want to talk using social media. Most teens start to feel that their culture is left behind and start to despise it. They, as a result, they forsake culture and tradition which ends up leading them astray. This also destroys the spreading of our African culture and heritage with other as it is slowly dying. People end up following western culture and values and even dressing which may be inappropriate for the African society. Like not doing house chores or ignoring guests when they come instead of greeting them and making them feel at home. Most admit to their principles being bent to some extent to fit in which may not, however, be an appositive thing, especially If what they are fitting into is inappropriate and destructive. I was also shocked to find out that their other teens that do not use any form of new media or social site and some that only use new media for school in this day of age and time. This was due to parents denying them access to it after witnessing a reduction in their grades. Others were because of their religion not permitting them to do so or simply not wanting to do so after being affected by it negatively in some ways. They said the was an increase in their performance due to this in class as they had more time to study but however lacked some friends and often felt left out. Most teens did say they should be an age restriction on sites as to what they can and cannot view. They should be appropriate pictures on social sites. And finally, parents should mind the time that their children are given internet access. Some teens suggested being given access in the evening, weekends and on holidays. The Victorian Era: Social Classes Of England The Victorian Era: Social Classes Of England The Victorian Era social classes of England are unlike any other social system; every rule could be bent or broken (An Ancestry.com Community, par. 1). A person could be born into the lowest class, and could end up being part of the nobility by marriage (An Ancestry.com Community, par. 1). Some heiresses were married to local families (Thornber par. 10). An example of the odd rules would be how the aristocracy and gentry, in mid-nineteenth century, would become the upper class(Cody par.2). The Victorian Era is viewed as a period of great opportunity for every class.(Loftus par. 1). Each class can be divided by power, authority, wealth, working and living conditions, life-styles, education, and culture(Cody par. 2). At times, the middle class took power, not the upper class(Loftus, par. 1)The lower class was divided mainly by the wealth and working conditions of families(Channe14.com, par. 19). The main groups consist of upper class -aristocracy and gentry-, middle class, and lower cl ass. The gentry were lines of land-owning families from noble men (Thornber, pars. 2 and 4). Their system of inheriting the land from their father helped the gentry, but it eventually destructed them (Thornber par. 4). A main reason was the decline of agriculture after the Napoleonic Wars (Thornber par. 4). Some of the gentry managed to keep their estates (Thornber par. 8). Another reason for the gentrys fall was the male inheritors decline into moral sin (French and Rothery 403). The landed gentry was in control until the younger sons started to put the families financial security in danger; they were soon sent to an outside school (French and Rothery 403-405). This moral decline was soon blamed on the parents teaching of their children (French and Rothery 404). Although the kids did go to school, their circle of activity still revolved around society (French and Rothery 405). Although one might think the gentry to be powerful, the aristocrats retain the power (Channe14.com, pars.8). The sinple definition of aristocracy is rule of the best or superior (Aristocracy, par. 2). It has the least change out of all the social classes (Channe14.com, pars.8). Most people who made up the aristocracy were politicians who came from noble families (Channe14.com, pars.8). The unelected House of Lords is mainly made up of aristocrats (Channe14.com, par. 8). If you were part of the British aristocracy, by birth, you were a gentleman (The Gentleman, par.2). To be an aristocrat one had to have land (An Ancestry.com community, par. 1). Oddly enough, most aristocrats were not of the richest or most powerful families (An Ancestry.com Community, par. 3). The aristocrats were also head of the social life (Channe14.com, par.10). The great families filled the main circles, through their youth, with fashion and culture (Escott par. 2). They lived on grand country estates where they would go hunting and fishing (Channe14.com, par.10). Some aristocrats even had London estates which would opened up during certain seasons (Channe14.com, par. 10). Aristocrats eventually came to a point where they did not do anything but flaunted their wealth, and politics became a game (Escott par. 2). They realized they needed to step up their game when the middle class began to rise (Escott par. 2). The middle class consisted of businessman, entrepreneurs, shopkeepers, merchants, and any other men just above the lower class (Loftus par. 2). To be part of the middle class, one had to take care of ones self, their family, and ones community (Loftus par. 4). It is safe to say that a definition of the middle class is impossible (Loftus par. 1).The dream of the businessmen in the middle class was to become part of the aristocracy (Channe14.com, par. 11). Over time, the middle class changed into a small group mainly made up of professionals, factory owners, merchants, and writers (Channe14.com, par 12). An example of one of these would be the writer, Conan Doyle (Hammer 56 65). The middle class, unlike the aristocracy, made their society on rights not by hereditary gain (Loftus par. 1). The middle class has two main sections, the upper middle class and the lower middle class (Channe14.com, pars. 13 17). The upper middle class was between professionals, and industrialists (Channe14.com, par. 14). Professionals were the doctors, lawyers, clergy, and top civil servants (Channe14.com, par. 14). The lower middle class was made up of mostly women (Channe14.com, par. 16). Many upper middle class men worked in banks or climb up the ladder to rule the empire (Channe14.com, par. 15). These men were usually the ones who used their riches to buy homes and became just as rich as the aristocracy (Loftus par. 3). The middle classs economy and financial variations were made by differences on background, politics, and religion (Loftus par. 3). They mainly came from political coherence (Loftus par. 4). Emphasized by competition, thrift, and self-reliance, the middle class began to rise into power (Loftus par. 4). All their success was due to their principles on individuality (Loftus par. 5). Every middle class person, through hard work and self- reliance, could have had economic and social success (Loftus par. 5). Many critics, like Thomas Carlyle, were fearful that the middle class individualism would be a threat to the community (Loftus par. 5). Much of the middle class success came from the political economy as well as the social economy (Loftus par. 8). They were always ready for improvement; it was key to their culture (Loftus par. 8). The middle class defined themselves by attempting to make the lower class see their potential (Loftus par. 9). The lower class was more commonly known to the Victorians as the working class (Channe14.com, par. 18). The workers of the working class can be divided into six groups: high-paid labor, regular standard earners, small regular earners, intermittent earners, casual earners, and the lowest class (Channe14.com, pars. 18 and 19). The largest group division were the regular standard earners, which had more people than the other five groups put together (Channe14.com, par. 20). The regular standard earners were men who made their wages from the Victorian economy; as it rose, so did their wages (Channe14.com, par. 20). When the economy boomed, people had less children, which meant more time for relaxing (Channe14.com, par. 20). The Victorian Era was the best time for one to spend their days in leisurely activity (Channe14.com, par. 24). As life became better for the higher working classes, who are known as deserving poor, the poor became more desperate (Channe14.com, par. 21). While the deserving poor get charity, if and when they need it, the lowest class gets nothing (Channe14.com, par. 21). This class made up about a quarter of all the outskirt areas (Channe14.com, par. 21). Some of these people may be criminals or unemployed, but each of them live in conditions beyond their control (Channe14.com, pars. 22 23). Times became so bad that one might have seen another selling dog droppings (Channe14.com, par. 22). Country poverty was even more sad (Channe14.com, par. 23). Most people survived on eight pounds a year (Channe14.com, par. 23). Some teenagers were forced to join gangs and mothers had to give their babies opium so they would not cry (Channe14.com, par. 22 23). Though, if one of these men could save enough money to start a small business, he could move up into middle class (Loftus par. 11). The Victorian era was the best time for leisurely activity (Channe14.com, par. 24). The upper class, middle class and lower class began to fade away shortly after this end of this period (French and Rothery 402-422). As stated earlier, the Victorian Era gave opportunity to most everyone (Loftus par. 1). Each class opportunity was shown through power, authority, and wealth (Cody par. 2). At the close of this era, the higher middle class sat with the upper middle class at operas in the royal box, thus showing the opportunity in the classes (Channe14.com, par. 3). Interestingly enough, there are a few noble families still left in England today (An Ancestry.com Community, par. 18). Work Cited An Ancestry.com Community. 31 March 2010. English Social Classes. 08 November 2010 . aristocracy. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2010 ed. Channe14.com. 2010 Time Travelers Guide to Victorian Britain. 2010. . Fordham.edu. 2010. Modern History Sourcebook. 2010. . French, Henry and Mark Rothery. Upon Your Entry into the World: masculine values and the threshold of adulthood among landed elites in England 1680-1800.Social History. 33 (4 Nov. 2008) : 402 422. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO Brandon Public Library. 01 November 2010. . Hammer, Joshua. Sherlock Holmes London. Smithsonian January 2010:56-65 David, Cody. The Victorian Web. 2002. The Victorian Web. 22 July 2002 Social Class. 27 October 2010 . David, Cody. The Victorian Web. 2002. The Victorian Web. 22 July 2002 The Gentlemen. 01 November 2010 . Loftus, Donna. BBC. 15 October 2010 The Rise of the Victorian Middle Class. 08 November 2010 . Thornber, Craig. Cheshire Antiquities. 2010 The East Cheshire Gentry. 08 November 2010 .

Blanche :: essays research papers

Blanche Du Bois: Blanche is a woman coming from an aristocratic background. She has lost her home, Belle Reve and also her job as an English teacher and came to her sister’s house to stay for a while. In the past, her first lover died and after that she had changed a lot. Blanche is described by Tennessee Williams as delicate, sensitive, cultured, and beautiful. She is always â€Å"dressed in a white suit with a fluffy boddice, necklace and ear-rings of pearl, white gloves and hat, looking as if she were arriving at a summer tea or coctail party in the garden district.† (117-Scene I) This whiteness is symbolic that she wants to be seen as pure. Her name also means â€Å"white†. She bathes often because she feels dirty in her body maybe because of her sexual memories. She says â€Å"a hot bath and a long, cold drink always gives me a brand-new outlook on life.† (192-Scene VII) This summarizes her need for bathing. As she is unable to get rid of her dirtiness in her mind, she tries to get rid of it physically. She also drinks a lot because she feels comfortable after that. She escapes into drink rather than facing life as it is. Her other weakness is about her appearance. She pays too much attention to her appearance because she wants to catch men’s eyes. She admits that while talking to her sister, Stella, by saying: â€Å"I never was hard or self-sufficient enough. When people are soft- soft people have got to court the favour of hard ones, Stella. Have got to be seductive- put on soft colours, the colours of butterfly wings, and glow†¦I’ve run for protection, Stella†¦And so the soft people have got to- shimmer and glow – put a – paper lantern over the light†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (169-Scene V) She is giving too much importance to her looks. For example, the light is a symbol of this. She is afraid of light. She is getting older and if she is seen in the light, she thinks people will discover her real age and won’t look at her. Blanche always lies about her situation, her appearance, her age, her everything. This is what Stanley discovers and tells Stella all about it. â€Å"Sister Blanche is no lily.† (186-Scene VII) And another lie she said was about her resignation from the school. It is all because of â€Å" a seventeen-year-old-boy-she’d gotten mixed up with.

Dominate Cultural Patterns of Switzerland Essays -- essays research pa

Interpersonal Relations/Communications Dominant Cultural Patterns in the United States as Compared and Contrasted to Dominant Cultural Patterns in Switzerland   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Switzerland is one of the most mountainous countries in Europe. The Alps cover more than half of the country. It is a small country of 15,942 square miles. The country can be geographically divided into 3 areas: the Alps, the Mittleland (plateau), and the Jura mountains.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The population of Switzerland is about 7.3 million, with the majority of the population living in the Mittleland area. Switzerland is a melting pot of different ethnic groups-Germans, French, Italians, and Romansch. About 6% of the people who live in Switzerland have come from the Middle East, the former Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy, and other countries. Most of them are guest workers and do not have Swiss citizenship (Culturgram 277). Due to the diversity of cultures, Switzerland has four official languages-German, French, Italian. and Romansch. Romansch is spoken by 1% of the population.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Switzerland is one of the world’s oldest democracies. The founding of the Swiss Confederation took place on August 1, 1291. Switzerland became a neutral country in 1815, making it illegal for the Swiss federal government to enter into political alliances or to make war except for in self-defense.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The country is divided into 26 states. These states are known as cantons. Political powers are divided between the federal government and the cantons (state) government. The citizens enjoy close control over the laws of the cantons, as well as the federal government. Referendums allow people to demand popular vote. Initiatives give the citizens the right to bring specific issues before the people to vote upon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Now that you have a brief overview of Switzerland, we can successfully compare and contrast this country to the United States. Not just socially, or economically, for the reason behind this paper is to compare and contrast the dominant cultural patterns of the United States (individualism, equality, materialism, science and technology -progress and change, activity and work) to the dominant cultural patterns of Switzerland.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When comparing and contrasting the dominant cultural... ...as skiing, bobsledding, camping, hiking, climbing, boating and swimming. We as American’s enjoy many different forms of â€Å"play†. There is a great demand for amusement parks, sporting events, art, music, hobbies, and food. We enjoy spending time with family and friends, indoors as well as outdoors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Switzerland is considered to be an industrial nation, as is the United States. The Swiss are known for their craftsmanship and take pride in their work. Manufacturing includes the production of various precision instruments, watches, machine tools, textiles, and chemicals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, I have decided that the United States and Switzerland are similar in many ways. Our social and political systems are similar. Both of these countries are innovative, industrious, prosperous, and value freedom and independence. Works Cited â€Å"Switzerland.† Culturgram 2000, Ed. Grant P. Skabelund. 2 vols. Brigham Young University and eMSTAR, Inc. USA, 1999 â€Å"Switzerland.† Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia, Ed. Leon. L Bram. 29 vols. United States  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  of America: Rand McNally & Company, 1986 â€Å"Switzerland.† New Enc

Language and Mind Essay

1. Which of the following statements about parameters is FALSE? a. They specify the limits on possible differences between languages b. They do not belong to Universal Grammar # c. Their values must be â€Å"set† on the basis of experience 2. From the viewpoint of the principles-and-parameters theory, the process of language acquisition consists of: a. Setting the choice for each parameter that fits the language that is being acquired # b. Storing words and sentences in memory c. Learning the order in which words occur in sentences 3. If some property X is true for all languages, we can conclude that: a. X may be a property that all and only languages have (i.e. a language-unique universal) # b. X must be a general property of all cognitive systems c. X is determined by the universal human articulatory apparatus 4. The fact that young infants do not forget about objects that they have seen after these objects have been taken away is called: a. object shift b. habituation c. object permanence # 5. Consider the following two question sentences: i. When did the boy say he fell out of the tree? ii. When did the boy say how he fell out of the tree? The first question is ambiguous because: a. It is not clearly formulated b. It has two different underlying deep structures # c. It has one sentence embedded in another sentence 6. The statement: perception is ahead of production means that: a. Children can articulate words before they can recognize and understand them b. Children can recognize and understand words and sentences that they cannot yet properly produce themselves# c. Children’s visual abilities are better than their auditory abilities 7. The special way in which parents speak to young infants is called a. Telegraphic speech b. Motherese or parentese# c. Recursion 8. The ‘Critical Period’ that is relevant for first and second language acquisition a. That is correct # b. That is incorrect because it is only relevant for first language acquisition c. That is incorrect because it is only relevant for second language acquisition 9. Genie’s success in acquiring English turned out to be very limited. The greatest problem she had was: a. Learning words b. Understanding what people said to her c. Forming utterances with syntactic structure # 10. Genie’s case provides important support for: a. The critical period hypothesis # b. The role of ‘motherese’ in language acquisition c. The Poverty of stimulus argument for innateness 11. Imagine the following scenario: Some Japanese people come to Mexico to do business. None of them speaks Spanish, and none of their Mexican partners speaks Japanese. There is no other language that these two groups have in common. Therefore, they have to develop a kind of ‘auxiliary communication system’ that can fit this special circumstance. This system is most likely to be a: a. creole b. pidgin # c. English 12. According to Derek Bickerton a creole language is created by: a. adults who are forced to communicate with each other over a long period of time without having a shared language b. people who need to have a secret language c. children whose linguistic input consists of a pidgin spoken in their community # 13. The fact that children are apparently capable of producing a creole language which has grammatical properties that are not present in the pidgin input can be used as evidence for: a. The view that children have innate knowledge of language structure # b. The view that pidgin languages have hidden grammatical structure c. The view that children are born with blank slate minds 14. For a universal to count as an argument for the IH, which of the following three conditions is NOT necessary: a. The universal must be true of languages only b. We cannot explain the universal in any other way c. The universals must be about the syntax of language# 15. Which of the following is NOT a property of creole languages? a. Creole languages have a very simplified grammar # b. Creole languages have been acquired as first languages c. Creole languages have a fully developed grammar 16. Which of the following statements is FALSE? a. Sign languages differ from spoken languages in being based on visual signals rather than on sound b. Sign languages have emerged spontaneously (i.e. they are not man-made or artificial) just like spoken languages c. Sign languages are fundamentally different from spoken languages in that all signs are necessarily iconic # 17. The existence of sign languages, being fully equivalent in all relevant respects to spoken languages, supports the innateness hypothesis because: a. Both types of languages are processed in totally different brain regions b. Both types of languages depend on the innate principles of the auditory or visual system c. Even though the perceptual modality (audition versus vision) is so different from the spoken language modality, the same kind of grammatical structures are present in both types of languages # 18. The stages that children, who acquire a sign language, go through (after they start babbling) are: a. The same as the stages we see in the acquisition of spoken languages # b. Different in that deaf children skip the two word stage c. Different in that deaf children never get to the point that they form full sentences 19. In the case of Nicaraguan Sign Language, the youngest children changed the unstructured signing of their older peers into a structured language. This is analogous to: a. changing a pidgin into a creole # b. changing a creole into a pidgin c. changing a spoken language into a sign language 20. A simplified form of human communication used by people with no common language is a(n): a. Pidgin language # b. Creole language c. Artificial language 21. Which of the following statements is TRUE? a. All pidgin languages have the same grammar b. All pidgin languages have very simple grammars # c. All pidgin languages have fully developed grammars 22. Which of the following statements is TRUE a. Children can acquire only one languages at the same time b. There are no fixed stages in the acquisition of sign languages c. Foreign language learning after puberty in general leads to imperfect language abilities # 23. The argument that the input that children receive is not rich enough to explain the rich knowledge that they end up with is called: a. The argument from universals b. The argument from stages c. The poverty of the stimulus argument # 24. Evidence for categorical perception in young infants comes from: a. Habituation studies # b. Diary studies c. Longitudinal studies 25. In which stage of language acquisition would children most likely produce a sentence such as â€Å"mommy want milky†? a. Holophrastic stage b. Two word-stage c. Telegraphic stage #

Ors Versus Crown Colony Government

In order to come to a conclusive response to the question of whether the 19th century debate over Crown Colony Government versus the Old Representative System as a mechanism of colonial rule in the 19th century British West Indies was and issue of democracy versus autocracy. I shall therefore distinguish between democracy and autocracy, and Old Representative System and the Crown Colony Government respectively. Moreover, I am going to prove from democratic standpoint that the Old representative system and the Crown Colony Government are different as it relates to the degree of democracy that was allowed within the two types of Governance. Trevor Monroe asserts that the word democracy comes from the bringing together of two Greek words, demos, which means people, and kratia, which means to rule. Monroe further asserts that in democratic states political rights are recognized and practiced to some degree (Munroe, 2002). Therefore, it is safe to say that autocracy is the opposite of democracy in that it is based on self derived power or in other words absolute authority and supremacy of an individual or group. Moreover, Monroe affirms that in authoritarian states there is no equality in the rule of the law, he goes on to mention that the laws within these states are for some but the rulers are above the law. The most critical point Monroe puts forward is that the rules that exist under an authoritarian system are influenced by the desires of the ruling group and may change from time to time(Monroe. 2002). Understanding these two terminologies will provide a clearer understanding to the reader as it relates to the Old Representative System and the Crown Colony Government. From the inception of slavery in the Caribbean to the time of the Crown Colony Government, the ideology of the powers that be (plantocracy or elite) was to maintain absolute power and control over the people who were considered of a lower class (Slaves). To get a better grasp of the architecture of the Old Representative System and its functions I shall therefore focus on the writings of Edward long and Brian Edwards. Long and Edwards affirms that the Old Representative system was the predominant constitutional form in the British colonies in the West Indies during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Long and Edwards go on further to state that â€Å"as a governmental system, the ORS consisted of three basic elements in the form or Governor, Council, and Assembly†. The Governor as the authors explain was the chief executive and was appointed by the Crown and was the local representative of imperial interest in the colony (Long and Edward. 004). The council, the authors assert was appointed by the Crown on the recommendation of the Governor, functioned as a second chamber of the colonial legislature and also as an advisory council to the Governor who exercised, under the general supervision of the crown, general powers of suspension and dismissal over its members. Based on the information being presented by the authors it can clearly be seen that there was some form of limited democracy. Long and Edwards affirms that in some colonies, the council acting together with the Governor, also exercised judicial functions as an appellate court in cases involving sums in excess of three hundred pounds but not exceeding five hundred pounds, in which case appeals lay to the crown’s privy council. Lastly, long and Edwards asserts that the assemblies varied in size and were elected by freeholders on a franchise which in it self varied among different colonies. The author’s articulate that the constitutional form together with the respective powers and functions of the constituent elements of the ORS were laid down in the commission and instructions issued to the Governor by the Crown under the authority of the royal prerogative (Long and Edward. 2004). Long and Edward provides evidence to support the fact that there was limited democracy with the ORS. They stated that â€Å"within the overall framework of the ORS, it was clearly intended that the Assemble should be subordinate to the Governor and Council†. The general subordination of the assembly was secured by the power of the Governor to refuse assent legislative power with the assembly, including the right to amend money bills passed by the Assembly. According to Long and Edward however, in spite of these restrictions, the Assembly through the effective use of its power over supplies, acquired considerable power and became the dominant element of the colonial constitutional structure, in the face of determined attempts on the part of the imperial government to limit its legislative competence and to confine its power within the legal bounds of a provincial council.